3rd YEAR MBBS Study Guide

Prepared by:

                           Chaman Zulfiqar (G12)

Compiled by:

                     Hafiz Muhammad Umair Noor (G12)

Reference Books:

• NRA Forensic Medicine 2^nd Edition
• Shahbaz Forensic Medicine 6^th Edition

For2-Tr-001:

• Chapter 5, def of injury, wound, hurt with their section number
• Def must be learnt word to word as it is
• Page 109 Injuries classification on basis of causative agent complete topic
• Table 4.2 NRA complete as it is vvv imp

For2-Tr-002:

• Chapter 5 SHAHBAZ, pg 107, mech of wound production complete

For2-Tr-003:

• Chapter 5 SHAHBAZ , pg 113 to 114 complete topic of abrasion

For2-Tr-004:

• Chapter 5 SHAHBAZ pg 110 to 112, bruise, complete topic along with tables + table 6.3  from NRA vvv imp table

For2-Tr-005:

• Chapter 5 SHAHBAZ, pg 115 to 116 Laceration complete topic + table of diff b/w laceration, incised wound and stab wound on SHAHBAZ pg 123 sendup question

For2-Tr-006:

• Not given in book, you’ll have to do it from google or chat/gpt

For2-Tr-007:

• SHAHBAZ chap 5 pg 116 to 121,  incised and stab wounds complete

For2-Tr-008:

• Mainly related to pathology

For2-Tr-009:

• SHAHBAZ chap 5, pg 125 age of wound, complete topic till next page

For2-Tr-010:

• Ewings postulate, from NRA (given at end of traumatology chap)

For2-Tr-011:

• Chapter 15 SHAHBAZ, pg 322 battered baby syndrome, comp topic

For2-Tr-012  For2-Tr-013

• These topics will be covered in your lab and wards

For2-Tr-014:

• Chap 6 SHAHBAZ, def of firearm pg, 127
• Firearm components + def of ballistics, pg 129

For2-Tr-015:

• Chapter 6 SHAHBAZ, pg 133, exterior ballistics ke last pr 2 points h air resistance aur gravity wale ye topic krna ha

For2-Tr-016:

• Chapter 6 SHAHBAZ, firearm wound complex + pg 145 determination of dist of fire + pg 142, table of diff b/w entry and exit wound

For2-Tr-017:

• Chapter 6 SHAHBAZ, pg 132 gun powder types and composition

For2-Tr-018:

• Complete topic of explosions from SHAHBAZ, pg 33, not much imp

For2-Tr-019 and For2-Tr-020

• complete topic of pedestriam injuries from SHAHBAZ pg 326 to 322

For2-Tr-021:

• Chapter 7 SHAHBAZ Thermal injury complete topic till pg 162

For2-Tr-022:

• Chapter 7 SHAHBAZ, pg 164 till end complete topic of electrocution and lightening

For2-Tr-023:

• SHAHBAZ pg 348, complete topic of heat (mcqs ae the hme is topic se test me, so don’t ignore it)

For2-Tr-024:

• Covered in topic of burns

For2-Tr-025:

• SHAHBAZ Chapter 8, pg 188, complete topic of drowning

For2-Se-001:

• SHAHBAZ Chapter 9 pg 195, all def + causes of impotence from next pg along with medicolegal imp from pg 197

For2-Se-002:

• SHAHBAZ Chapter 10, signs of viriginity, complete topic + medicolegal imp from pg 207

For2-Se-003:

• Chapter 10 SHAHBAZ, signs of pregnancy, complete topic, pg 207

For2-Se-004:

• Chapter 10, Signs of delivery, complete topic

For2-Se-005:

• Chapter 10 SHAHBAZ, pg 217 abortion complete topic (criminal abortion is extremely imp)

For2-Se-006:

• SHAHBAZ Chapter 11, def of sexual offences,  classificatio, legal consideration, examination of case of rape (it’s written very lengthy here, do it from NRA) extremely imp topic (ques of our prof exam)

For2-Se-007:

• SHAHBAZ Chapter 15, Def of infanticide + summary of factors indicative of live birth from pg 318, 
• Definition of live born, still born, dead born, and table differentiating b/w ante-natal and intra-natal deaths, from pg 312
• Their autopsy findings are not mentioned here properly. You can do it from google

Prepared by:                                                                                          

                           Christopher Stephen (G12)                            

Compiled by:

                     Hafiz Muhammad Umair Noor (G12)

Recomended Books:

• Mini Katzung Pharmacology Edition 2024-25
• Classification from Ali Raza Notes  

(MS2-Ph-001)

DMARDS

Chapter 36:

• Classification of DMARDS
• MOA
• Effects + clinical uses
• Adverse Effects

CORTICOSTEROIDS

Chapter 39:

• Role in autoimmune diseases(like rheumatoid arthritis
• MOA
• Adverse Effects

BISPHOSPHONATES

Chapter 42:

• Names
• MOA
• Adverse Effects (esophagitis so maintain upright position for half an hour)

NSAIDs

Chapter 36:

• MOA
• Indication in different diseases
• Adverse Effects specially those of nsaids and aspirin

OPIOIDS

Chapter 31:

• MOA
• Indication in different diseases
• Adverse Effects

Prepared by:

                           Shahr Bano Sayal (G12)

Compiled by:

                     Hafiz Muhammad Umair Noor (G12)

Reference Books:

• Mini Katzung Pharmacology Edition 2024-25
• Kaplan USMLE Step 1 Pharmacology Lecture Notes

• Ali Raza Chaudhary Notes

CHEMOTHERAPEUTICS

Note:

One of the lengthy but selective topics, do this topic according to guidelines otherwise it’ll give you headache, Kuch chapters ap ny Kaplan Sy krny Hain  aur Kuch katzung Sy. I’ll mention accordingly.

• Saab Sy phly classification krni ha ap ny hr topic ki (Three times a day😅)
• Do complete chapter from mentioned book
• Preferred to do Ayesha batool shortlist on your book (it’ll help a lot for SEQ)
• If you want, give a read to topic from Lippincott (it’s optional, If you find something imp note it on your main book)
• I’ll mention chapters numbers from Katzung.

Chapter 43: (Beta Lactam Antibiotics)

• Classification from ARC notes
• Complete chapter from Kaplan

Chapter 44 +45: (Aminoglycosides and Tetracyclines)

• Classification from ARC notes
• Comp chapter from Kaplan (v imp)

Chapter 46:

• Classification from ARC notes
• Complete chapter from Katzung (v imp)

Chapter 47

• Classification from ARC notes
• Complete chapter from Katzung (v imp)

Chapter 48

• Classification from ARC notes
• Complete chapter from Katzung (v imp)

Chapter 49

• Antiviral from Kaplan (one of the imp topics)
• Table 49.2 (imp) (from Katzung)

Chapter 50 +51

• No need to do it.

 Chapter 52:

• Antiprotozoal [just do classification from ARC notes and give a read to summary table from Katzung(imp)]
• Chloroquine, primaquine , sodium sitabogluconate from summary table

Chapter 53:

• Just classification from ARC notes
• Summary table from Katzung

Prepared by:

                         Kisa e Zahra (G12)

Compiled by:

                   Hafiz Muhammad Umair Noor (G12)

Reference Books:

• Anwar Microbiology 2^nd Edition
• Sketchy Microbiology

Note:

• Sketchy + Anwar (this is the best combo for micro and you have to prepared everything in this) 
• You can also use Levinson as it is standard book for your better understanding.

(ID-Pa-001)

For clinical bacteriology basic steps are always on your fingertips like staining, morphology, virulence factors, special disease by microbe etc

Gram +ve Microbes

Anwar Chapter # 12, 14

Levinson Chapter # 15, 17 (All tables are imp)

IMPORTANT POINTS FOR BACTERIA

• Staph aureus ( all diseases caused by this(Kawasaki disease and other), its cell wall components and pathogenisis
• For strep know about it’s hemolysis classification and strep pyogenese is imp one
• Clostridium classification+imp diseases caused by them
• Bacillus (imp) caused by reheated rice
• Corynebacterium pathogenisis and diseases imp
• Read of listeria and gardenella

Gram -ve Cocci

Anwar  Chapter # 13

Levinson Chapter # 16

• Neisseria species are imp (specially their pathogenesis and lab diagnosis)

Gram -ve Rods:

Lab diagnosis are important that will differ microbes like MacCkoney’s agar, urease test, TSI test colour.

Anwar Chapter #15

Levinson Chapter # 18+19

• E.coli (most imp) it’s pathogenesis, it’s ETEC and EHEC form and lab diagnosis
• Salmonella (imp pathogenesis, rose spots, lab diagnosis)
• Shigella (pathogenesis)
• Vibrio (imp pathogenesis+ rice watery stools + lab diagnosis)
• Proteus (pathogenesis+ urease positive + staghorn canaliculi)
• Pseudomonas (imp pigments + diseases + patho)
• H.pylori and camplylobacter (read+ sketchy)
• Actinomyces (only sketchy)

Spirochetes:

Anwar Chapter # 21

Levinson Chapter # 24

• Traponema (imp one it’s types, patho, lab diagnosis)
• Borrelia and leptospira (read)

Mycobacterium:

Anwar Chapter # 18

Levinson Chapter # 21

• Mycobacterium Tuberculosis is most imp . Should done everything ( pathogenesis, diseases, lab diagnosis imp)
• Laprae( imp and it’s two types difference)

Rickettsia and Chlymadia:

Anwar Chapter # 22, 23

• Just do sketchy and anwar

(D-Pa-002)

• For parasites most imp are life cycles and the most of transmission
• Sketchy and Anwar are best for context and do life cycles from Levinson

Anwar Chapter # 44, 45, 46, 47, 48

Levinson Chapter # 51, 52, 54, 55, 56

IMPORTANT PARASITES

• Entamoeba
• Plasmodium (very imp)
• Echinococcus(life cycle imp)
• Shictosoma
• Entrobius
• Ascaris
• Necator
• Ancylostoma

(Note:  do each and everything of above mention parasites)

(ID-Pa-003)

For fungi (Anwar + sketchy is enough)

Anwar Chapter # 40, 41, 42

IMPORTANT FUNGI

• Dermatophytes (type+ lab diagnosis)
• Histoplasma imp (morphology+ pathogenesis)
• Candida (most imp) (patho+ clinical findings+ lab diagnosis)
• Cryptococcus (patho+ lab diagnosis)
• Aspergillus (imp patho+ it’s forms + lab diagnosis)

(ID-Pa-004)

• Virology is tough from others microbes just do imp viruses
• Sketchy and Anwar is more than enough
• Always remember imp points that will help in diagnosis

Anwar Chapter # 31

• Herpes+ varicella + cytomegalovirus are imp one
• Others just read

Anwar Chapter # 32

• Influenza (important it’s types+ antigenic drift and shift and pathogenisis factors
• Measles mumps (sketchy is enough and read from Anwar)
• Rabies most imp) (it’s pathogenesis and incubation period and vaccine)
• Rubella (read)

Anwar Chapter # 33

• Corona virus (important it’s pathogenesis)

Anwar Chapter # 34

• Polio virus (imp) (it’s mode of transmission + pathogenesis + it’s vaccine types)
• Reovirus (read)

Anwar Chapter # 35

• Hepatitis B is most imp among them
• Serological findings
• Clinical features
• Pathogenesis
• Window period
• Read other hepatitis types

Anwar Chapter # 36

• Dengue virus (very imp)
• Dengue hemorrhagic fever hypothesis
• Lab diagnosis

Anwar Chapter # 37

• Just do table

Anwar Chapter # 38

• HIV (most imp)
• Pathogenesis
• Cycle
• Stages of AIDS
• Lab diagnosis

(Note: Do sktechy must for microbiology)

(ID-Pa-005)

Microbes Causing CNS Infections

For meningitis this will help:

1. Less than 2 Months (Neonates and Young Infants)

1. Streptococcus Agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus
2. Escherichia Coli (E. coli)
3. Listeria Monocytogenes
4. More than 2 Months (Infants and Young Children)

1. Streptococcus Pneumoniae (Pneumococcus)
2. Neisseria Meningitidis (Meningococcus)
   • Important Note: If a child is unvaccinated then Haemophilus influenzae becomes a very significant, often the number 1 cause of bacterial meningitis in this age group.
3. 2-18 Years (Children and Adolescents)
4. Neisseria Meningitidis (Meningococcus)
5. More than 18 Years (Adults)
6. Streptococcus Pneumoniae (Pneumococcus
7. Immunocompromised Individuals (e.g. HIV positive, Drug Users)
8. Listeria Monocytogenes

(Note: Correlate above knowledge)

(ID-Pa-006)

• GIT problems
• Correlate above knowledge
• Hepatitis guidelines mention in virology part
• Entamoeba in parasitic part

(ID-Pa-007)

• GIT infections
• Correlate from above knowledge

(ID-Pa-008)

• Rickettsia and leptospira mention in above bacteriology guidelines
• Anthrax, plague,francisella, bartonella and Brucella (do table from Anwar chapter17 and sketchy)

Prepared by:

                           Chaman Zulfiqar (G12)                           

Compiled by:

                     Hafiz Muhammad Umair Noor (G12)

NEOPLASIA

Recommemded Book:

• Medium Robbins Latest Edition

Note:

• Anwar General Pathology (for revision of theory in block/prof.)
• Must do flow charts, tables and diagrams from robbins as it is

N-pa-001:

• Definition of neoplasia (vvv imp def, asked in seq as well as in viva)

Neoplasia is an abnormal, uncontrolled, and autonomous proliferation of cells that persists even after the removal of the initial stimulus.

• Nomenclature from robbins chap 6 (2nd pg) + table 6.1
• Difference between benign and malignant tumor from google
• Epidemiology of cancer from robbins chap 6 pg 196 to 199

N-pa-002:

• Robbins chap 6, pg 200 from cancer genes to Carcinogenesis on pg 204 complete
• Page 221 fig 6.27 (vvv imp, ques of our class test + proff)
• Topic of sustained angiogenesis from robbins chap 6 pg 219
• Evasion of cell death with fig 6.25 complete on pg 217
• Fig 6.20 + 6.21 
• Definitions from topic of benign tumors + malignant tumors in robbins chap 6, just next to topic of nomenclature:

• Adenoma
• Chondroma
• Sarcoma
• Melanoma
• Seminoma
• Hamartoma
• Choristoma
• Teratoma

N-pa-003:

• Carcinogenic agents on pg 228 complete topic upto pg 235
• H.pylori with table 6.5 and fig 6.32

N-pa-004:

• Lab diagnosis of Cancer on pg 237, complete till end of chapter extremely imp from mcqs and point of view

N-pa-005:

• Grading and staging of cancer on pg 236 vvv imp seq, question of our class test and sendup 
• Fig 6.31 + tumor markers table from Big Robbins or you can google it as it’s not mentioned in medium robbins vvv imp table, question of our class test + proff

N-pa-006:

• Already covered in above topics + hall marks of cancer, just names of points from robbins chap 6 pg 205

N-pa-007:

• Table 6.6 (vvv imp from seq, mcqs, even viva point of view)

Prepared by:

                           Chaman Zulfiqar (G12)

Compiled by:

                     Hafiz Muhammad Umair Noor (G12)

Reference Books:

• Mini Katzung Pharmacology Edition 2024-25

(N-Ph-001)

Chapter 54:

• Cell cycle kinetics
• The log kill hypthesis
• Fig 54.1

(N-Ph-002)

Chapter 54:

• Page 457, from alkylating agents to page 461, upto mitomycin.
• This topic is quite lengthy, so for quick revision go for drug summary table given at end of chapter.

Anti-Tumor Drugs Associated with Rehabilitation

Anti-tumor drugs related to rehabilitation are given in a scattered way, I’m attaching  this topic below:

Drugs Causing Neuropathy (Physical Rehab needed)

1. Vincristine (Vinca alkaloid) – M-phase specific
2. Paclitaxel / Docetaxel (Taxanes) – M-phase specific

Rehab: Gait training, balance therapy, TENS, fine motor coordination

Drugs Causing Fatigue & Muscle Wasting

• Methotrexate (Antimetabolite – S-phase)
• 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) – S-phase specific
• Cisplatin (Platinum compound – non-specific)

Rehab: Graded exercise therapy, energy conservation, physiotherapy

Drugs Causing Cardiotoxicity (Cardiac Rehab needed)

• Doxorubicin (Anthracycline – CCNS)
• Cyclophosphamide (Alkylating agent – CCNS)

Rehab: Cardiac monitoring, endurance training under supervision

Drugs Causing Cognitive Dysfunction (Chemo Brain)

• Cytarabine (S-phase)
• Ifosfamide

Rehab: Memory training, concentration techniques, mental exercises

Drugs Causing Bone/Muscle Issues (Orthopedic Rehab)

1. Anastrozole / Letrozole (Aromatase inhibitors – Hormonal therapy)

Rehab: Joint mobility exercises, bone-strengthening routines

Drugs Causing Psychological Disturbance

1. Tamoxifen (SERM – Hormonal therapy)

Rehab: Counseling, support groups, psychiatric intervention

Drugs for Tumor Lysis Syndrome (TLS)

Drugs for tumor lysis sundrome are also not given in summarized way, you can do this topic as given below:

1. Allopurinol – Prevents uric acid formation
2. Rasburicase – Rapidly lowers existing uric acid
3. IV Fluids – Flush out toxins, protect kidneys
4. Insulin + Glucose – Shifts potassium into cells (for hyperkalemia)
5. Calcium Gluconate – Stabilizes heart in severe hyperkalemia
6. Loop Diuretics (e.g. Furosemide) – Increases excretion of potassium/phosphate
7. Phosphate Binders (e.g. Sevelamer) – Treat hyperphosphatemia
8. Potassium Binders (e.g. Patiromer) – Lower high potassium
9. Dialysis – For severe cases or kidney failure

Drugs Used To Treat Complications Of Cancer

(Beside Surgical Resection)

1. Chemotherapy – Destroys cancer cells systemically

• Used for: Tumor shrinkage, metastasis, pain relief
• Examples: Cyclophosphamide, Doxorubicin, Methotrexate

2. Radiotherapy – Local tumor control, pain relief

• Used in: Brain mets, bone pain, spinal cord compression

3. Hormonal Therapy – Blocks hormones that fuel certain cancers

• Used in: Breast (Tamoxifen), Prostate (Leuprolide) cancers

4. Targeted Therapy – Blocks specific tumor growth pathways

• Examples: Imatinib (CML), Trastuzumab (HER2+ breast cancer)

5. Immunotherapy – Boosts immune response against cancer

• Examples: Pembrolizumab, Nivolumab

6. Bisphosphonates – Manage bone mets, reduce fractures

• Example: Zoledronic acid

7. Steroids – Reduce edema, especially in brain/spinal mets

• Example: Dexamethasone

8. Anti-emetics, painkillers, growth factors – Supportive care during treatment

Glucocorticoids In Anti-Cancer Drug Cocktails

Glucocorticoids (e.g., prednisone, dexamethasone) are steroid hormones used in many anti-cancer drug regimens, especially in hematological malignancies. Here’s how they help:

Mechanisms & Roles in Cancer Therapy

1. Cytotoxic to lymphoid cells

• Directly induce apoptosis in leukemias and lymphomas (esp. ALL, NHL).

2.Anti-inflammatory& Immunosuppressive

• Reduce tumor-associated inflammation.
• Prevent hypersensitivity or allergic reactions to other chemo drugs.

3. Part of Chemotherapy Regimens

• ALL (Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia): Used in VDP or Hyper-CVAD protocols.
• NHL (Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma): In CHOP regimen:
• Cyclophosphamide, Hydroxydaunorubicin, Oncovin (vincristine), Prednisone.

4. Supportive Role

• Manage nausea/vomiting in chemotherapy.
• Reduce edema in brain tumors.
• Improve appetite and energy in terminal cases (palliative care)

Common Glucocorticoids Used

• Prednisone
• Dexamethasone
• Methylprednisolone

Side Effects (Long-Term Use)

• Immunosuppression
• Hyperglycemia
• Osteoporosis
• Mood swings
• Cushingoid features

UHS 7^th Block

  (Module No 14)

Prepared by:

                           Zayn ul Hassan (G12)                           

Compiled by:

                     Hafiz Muhammad Umair Noor (G12)

Reference Books:

• Anwar Microbiology and Immunology 2^nd Edition
• Levinson’s Review of Medical Microbiology and Immunology 17th Edition

HIT-Pa-001

• Diff bw Innate & acquired immunity (Ch#49 Anwar)
• Clinical Features of Myeloid derived innate imune cell(Table from Ch#50 Anwar)
• MHC Class 1 and 2 and its imp(Table from Ch#53 Anwar)
• Functions of Immunoglobulins (Table from Ch#52 Anwar)

HIT-Pa-003

• Hypersensitivity (Most important chapter recommended from levinson chapter#65 but Anwar is still okay)
• Do whole chapter

HIT-Pa-004

• Transplant rejection and Graft vs Host disease(Ch#53 from Anwar)(Read)
• Autoimmune diseases(Ch#57 Anwar)(Read)
• Prophylactic treatment for Post Transplant Infections(Post transplamt infectious agents are all Viruses,bacterias and Fungi which are oppurtunistic), For this topic I would suggest Do micro of Of these oppurtunistic infections and Do Their Treatment side by side

Anwar Immunology

Prepared by:     

Zernaab Jodat (G11)

Shahr Bano Sayal (G12)

Compiled by:

                     Hafiz Muhammad Umair Noor (G12)

GENERAL MEDICINE

Recommended Books:

• Irfan Masood Medicine 4^th Edition
• Step Up Medicine 2025-26 Edition

Important Topics: (For MCQs)

Common bacterial diseases:

• Staphylococcal infections (scalded skin syndrome)
• Typhoid
• Cholera
• Diphtheria
• Tetanus
• Botulism
• Syphilius
• Acute diarrhoea
• Pyrexia of unknown origin …step up page 408

Common viral diseases:

• Measles
• Mumps
• Chicken pox and shingles
• HIV(sexually transmitted infection)

Other Topics: (Read Only)

• Infectious mononucleosis
• Malaria
• TB  
• Rheumatic fever
• Dengue 
• Covid  
• HSV
• Meningitis
• Brucellosis
• Leptospirosis

GENERAL SURGERY

Recomended Book:

• Dogar General Surgery 4^th Edition (Chapter numbers are mentioned according to this edition)

Chapter 13:

Classification of burns and it’s management

• Classification (partial thickness and full thickness burns)
• Management (pre hospital management, assessment of burned patient,airway assessment, assessment of percentage of burn, depth of burn, circumferential involvement and hospital management )

Chapter 17:

Identify hemorrhage and shock in trauma patient

• Haemorrhages (imp-Clinical classification? Management of hypovolemic shock/Treatment of haemorrhage (v.imp).? Dynamic fluid response and interpretation?
• Shock (imp-Define? Classify?Clinical effects? Parameters in staging severity of shock? consequences of irreversible shock? Factors to catagorize as compensated and non compensated shock?)
• Septic shock (imp-Clinical findings?Principles of management? )Causes of obstructive shock?
• Monitoring of patient with shock ? (vvvv.imp)

Chapter 22:

Basics of wound healing and tissue repair

• Already better explained in Robbins chapter 3 inflammation and tissue repair.
• From surgical point of view do chapter 22 of dogar (general surgery), page 176 to181 above chronic leg ulcers.

COMMUNITY MEDICINE

• Give a read to concepts of health and disease from Chapter 2 of Excel Community Medicine

Prepared by:

                           Christopher Stephen (G12)

Compiled by:

                     Hafiz Muhammad Umair Noor (G12)

Reference Books:

• Friends Behavioral Sciences 3^rd Edition (Chapter numbers are mentioned according to this edition)

UHS 7^th Block

  (Module No 12)

Chapter 1:

F2-BhS-001

• Do def and importance of behavioral sciences/holistic approach
• BPS model is vvvvimp, asked in the pps and you need to do it thoroughly
• Model of health is also vimp, the terms like homeostasis allostasis, distress/eustress are also imp and they come as MCQs in your proff exam
• You should have a clear concept of yerk dodson curve and sickrole/malingering etc

UHS 7^th Block

  (Module No 13)

Chapter 2:

GPh-BhS-001

• Some common ethical dilemmas are enlisted on pg 26/27, read them and understand the concept and you’ll be able reproduce these in your exams
• MCQs are also asked from this portion
• Do types of euthanasia as well

Prepared by:

                           Chaman Zulfiqar (G12)

Compiled by:

                     Hafiz Muhammad Umair Noor (G12)

                     Nauman Waheed (G13)

Reference Books:

• NRA Forensic Medicine
• Shahbaz Forensic Medicine

F2-For-001:

• Def of forensic med from Shehbaz pg no. 2 + Branches of forensic med (not mentioned in book properly). Here I’m listing all these branches:

1.  Forensic Pathology
   • Deals with determining the cause of death through autopsy.
   • Helps in cases of unnatural, sudden, or suspicious deaths.
2. Clinical Forensic Medicine
   • Involves examining living individuals (e.g., in cases of assault, rape, drunkenness).
   • Includes age estimation and injury certification.
3. Forensic Toxicology
   • Focuses on detecting and interpreting drugs, alcohol, and poisons in the body.
4. Forensic Psychiatry
   • Deals with the relationship between mental disorders and criminal behavior.
   • Assesses criminal responsibility, competency, and insanity.
5. Forensic Odontology
   • Uses dental evidence for identification in mass disasters, bite mark analysis, etc
6. Forensic Anthropology
   • Identifies skeletal remains, estimates age, sex, stature, and ancestry.
7. Forensic Serology and DNA Analysis
   • Involves blood typing, semen analysis, and DNA profiling for identification.
8. Forensic Entomology
   • Studies insects on decomposed bodies to estimate time of death.
9. Forensic Radiology
   • Use of imaging (like X-rays, CT scans) in legal investigations (e.g., age estimation, fractures, hidden foreign bodies).
10. Digital and Cyber Forensics
    • Involves recovery and investigation of material found in digital devices.
11. Forensic Ballistics
    • Study of firearms, bullets, and ammunition to solve crimes involving guns.

F2-For-002:

• Def, types and stages of evidence from NRA chap 2, pg no 9, just below table 2.1

F2-For-003:

• Not given in book properly, You can do it from here:

In forensic medicine, accurate diagnosis of death is crucial for the following reasons:

1. Confirmation of Death: Forensic experts must confirm death beyond doubt before initiating any legal or postmortem procedures.

2. Time Since Death (Postmortem Interval): Early and accurate diagnosis helps estimate the time of death, which is vital in criminal investigations.

3. Determination of Cause and Manner of Death: Diagnosis lays the foundation for investigating whether the death was natural, accidental, suicidal, or homicidal.

4. Legal Proceedings: The diagnosis provides a medico-legal basis for court evidence, insurance claims, police reports, and inheritance rights.

5. Avoidance of Premature Burial or Cremation: Ensures that a person is not mistakenly buried or cremated alive due to conditions mimicking death (e.g., catalepsy, coma, hypothermia).

6. Organ Transplant Laws: In cases of brain death, forensic confirmation is necessary before organ harvesting, according to legal and ethical standards.

7. Protection Against Crime: Prevents concealment of crimes, such as murder being passed off as a natural death.

In forensic medicine, the diagnosis of death is not just medical—it’s a legal responsibility with major implications for justice and public safety.

F2-For-004:

• Shahbaz chap 4 pg no 77 (determination and certification of cause of death)
• NRA chap 12 table 12.3+ pg 143, 144 along with Fig 12.13

F2-For-009:

• Shahbaz section 3 pg no 455 (trace evidence with types)

F2-For-010:

• NRA chap 5 pg no 36 (last paragraph) till pg 37 
• SHAHBAZ chap 3 pg no 61 
• SHAHBAZ chap 12 pg no 272 (dying declaration)